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</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.1em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ccccff;font-size:175%;padding-top:0; display:block;margin-bottom:0.4em;"><a href="Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">Forensic science</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiological</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Forensic_anthropology" title="Forensic anthropology">Anthropology</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_biology" title="Forensic biology">Biology</a></li>
<li><a href="Bloodstain_pattern_analysis" title="Bloodstain pattern analysis">Bloodstain pattern analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_dentistry" title="Forensic dentistry">Dentistry</a></li>
<li><a href="DNA_phenotyping" title="DNA phenotyping">DNA phenotyping</a></li>
<li><a href="DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a>
<ul><li><a href="Investigative_genetic_genealogy" title="Investigative genetic genealogy">Forensic genealogy</a></li></ul></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_entomology" title="Forensic entomology">Entomology</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_epidemiology" title="Forensic epidemiology">Epidemiology</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_limnology" title="Forensic limnology">Limnology</a></li>
<li><a href="Medical_jurisprudence" title="Medical jurisprudence">Medicine</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_palynology" title="Forensic palynology">Palynology</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Pathology</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_podiatry" title="Forensic podiatry">Podiatry</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_toxicology" title="Forensic toxicology">Toxicology</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Social_science" title="Social science">Social</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Forensic_psychiatry" title="Forensic psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_psychology" title="Forensic psychology">Psychology</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_psychotherapy" title="Forensic psychotherapy">Psychotherapy</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_social_work" title="Forensic social work">Social work</a></li>
<li><a href="Verbal_autopsy" title="Verbal autopsy">Verbal autopsy</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)">Criminalistics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Forensic_accounting" title="Forensic accounting">Accounting</a></li>
<li><a href="Body_identification" title="Body identification">Body identification</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_chemistry" title="Forensic chemistry">Chemistry</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_colorimetry" title="Forensic colorimetry">Colorimetry</a></li>
<li><a href="Election_forensics" title="Election forensics">Election forensics</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_facial_reconstruction" title="Forensic facial reconstruction">Facial reconstruction</a></li>
<li><a href="Fingerprint" title="Fingerprint">Fingerprint analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_firearm_examination" title="Forensic firearm examination">Firearm examination</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_footwear_evidence" title="Forensic footwear evidence">Footwear evidence</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_arts" title="Forensic arts">Forensic arts</a></li>
<li><a href="Glove_prints" title="Glove prints">Gloveprint analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Palm_print" title="Palm print">Palmprint analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Questioned_document_examination" title="Questioned document examination">Questioned document examination</a></li>
<li><a href="Vein_matching" title="Vein matching">Vein matching</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_geophysics" title="Forensic geophysics">Forensic geophysics</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_geology" title="Forensic geology">Forensic geology</a></li>
<li><a href="Social_network_analysis" title="Social network analysis">Social network analysis</a></li></ul>
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</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="Digital_forensics" title="Digital forensics">Digital forensics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Computer_forensics" title="Computer forensics">Computer exams</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_data_analysis" title="Forensic data analysis">Data analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Database_forensics" title="Database forensics">Database study</a></li>
<li><a href="GPS_tracking_unit" title="GPS tracking unit">Location analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Malware_analysis" title="Malware analysis">Malware analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Mobile_device_forensics" title="Mobile device forensics">Mobile devices</a></li>
<li><a href="Network_forensics" title="Network forensics">Network analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Photography</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_video_analysis" title="Forensic video analysis">Video analysis</a></li>
<li><a href="Audio_forensics" title="Audio forensics">Audio analysis</a></li></ul>
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<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)">Related disciplines</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Forensic_electrical_engineering" title="Forensic electrical engineering">Electrical engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_engineering" title="Forensic engineering">Engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Fire_investigation" title="Fire investigation">Fire investigation</a></li>
<li><a href="Detection_of_fire_accelerants" title="Detection of fire accelerants">Fire accelerant detection</a></li>
<li><a href="Fractography" title="Fractography">Fractography</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_linguistics" title="Forensic linguistics">Linguistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_materials_engineering" title="Forensic materials engineering">Materials engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_polymer_engineering" title="Forensic polymer engineering">Polymer engineering</a></li>
<li><a href="Forensic_statistics" title="Forensic statistics">Statistics</a></li>
<li><a href="Traffic_collision_reconstruction" title="Traffic collision reconstruction">Traffic collision reconstruction</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content">
<div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center; background:#ddddff;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist">
<ul><li><a href="Crime_scene" title="Crime scene">Crime scene</a></li>
<li><a href="CSI_effect" title="CSI effect">CSI effect</a></li>
<li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="Use_of_DNA_in_forensic_entomology" title="Use of DNA in forensic entomology">DNA in forensic entomology</a></div></li>
<li><a href="Perry_Mason_syndrome" title="Perry Mason syndrome">Perry Mason syndrome</a></li>
<li><a href="Pollen_calendar" title="Pollen calendar">Pollen calendar</a></li>
<li><a href="Skid_mark" title="Skid mark">Skid mark</a></li>
<li><a href="Trace_evidence" title="Trace evidence">Trace evidence</a></li></ul>
</div></div></div></td>
</tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="display:block;margin-top:0.7em; padding-top:0.15em;">
<ul><li><a href="Outline_of_forensic_science" title="Outline of forensic science">Outline</a></li>
<li>Category</li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="margin-top:0;padding-top:0.15em;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">
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<p><b>Forensic profiling</b> is the study of <a href="Trace_evidence" title="Trace evidence">trace evidence</a> in order to develop <a href="Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">information</a> that can be used by <a href="Police" title="Police">police authorities</a>. This information can be used to identify suspects and convict them in a court of law.
</p><p>The term "<a href="Forensic" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic">forensic</a>" in this context refers to "information that is used in court as evidence" (<a href="#CITEREFGeradtsSommer2006">Geradts & Sommer 2006</a>, p. 10). The traces originate from criminal or litigious activities themselves. However traces are information that is not strictly dedicated to the court. They may increase knowledge in broader domains linked to security that deal with investigation, intelligence, surveillance, or risk analysis (<a href="#CITEREFGeradtsSommer2008">Geradts & Sommer 2008</a>, p. 26).
</p><p>Forensic profiling is different from <a href="Offender_profiling" title="Offender profiling">offender profiling</a>, which only refers to the identification of an offender to the psychological profile of a criminal.
</p><p>In particular, forensic profiling should refer to <a href="Profiling_(information_science)" title="Profiling (information science)">profiling</a> in the information sciences sense, i.e., to "The process of 'discovering' correlations between data in data bases that can be used to identify and represent a human or nonhuman subject (individual or group), and/or the application of profiles (sets of correlated data) to individuate and represent a subject or to identify a subject as a member of a group or category" (<a href="#CITEREFGeradtsSommer2006">Geradts & Sommer 2006</a>, p. 41).
</p>
<meta property="mw:PageProp/toc">
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Profiling_techniques">Profiling techniques</h2></div>
<p>Forensic profiling is generally conducted using <a href="Datamining" class="mw-redirect" title="Datamining">data mining</a> technology, as a means by which relevant patterns are discovered, and profiles are generated from large quantities of data.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>
</p><p>A distinction of forms of profiles that are used in a given context is necessary before evaluating applications of <a href="Data_mining" title="Data mining">data mining</a> techniques for forensic profiling.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Data_available">Data available</h2></div>
<p>The data available to law enforcement agencies is divided into two categories (<a href="#CITEREFGeradtsSommer2008">Geradts & Sommer 2008</a>, p. 15):
</p>
<ul><li><b>Nominal data</b> directly designates persons or objects (recidivists, intelligence files and suspect files, stolen vehicles or objects, etc.) and their relations. Nominal data may also be obtained in the framework of specific investigations, for instance a list of calls made with a <a href="Mobile_phone" title="Mobile phone">mobile phone</a> (card and/or phone) that cover a certain time, a list of people corresponding to a certain profile, or data obtained through surveillances.</li>
<li><b>Crime data</b> consist of traces that result from criminal activities: physical traces, other information collected at the scene, from witnesses or victims or some electronic traces, as well as reconstructed descriptions of cases (modus operandi, time intervals, duration and place) and their relations (links between cases, series).</li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="DNA_profiling" title="DNA profiling">DNA profiling</a> Used for the identification of individuals based on their respective DNA profiles.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><b>Digital Image Forensics</b>. This covers: <i>image source identification</i> (which is based on specific characteristics of the image acquisition device or technology) and <i>malicious post-processing or tampering</i> (whose aim is for instance to verify the integrity of particular features) (<a href="#CITEREFPopescuFarid2005">Popescu & Farid 2005</a>).</li>
<li><b>Illicit drug profiling</b>, which refers to the systematic extraction and storage of chemical attributes of drugs seized in order to obtain indications on the manufacture and distribution processes, the size and the evolution of the market). (<a href="#CITEREFTerrettaz-ZuffereyRatleRibauxEsseiva2007">Terrettaz-Zufferey et al. 2007</a>)</li>
<li><b>Forensic Information Technology</b> (forensic IT), refers to the analysis of the <a href="Digital_traces" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital traces">digital traces</a> that people leave when using <a href="Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>
<li><b>Offender profiling</b> i.e. psychological profiling of the criminal.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Issues">Issues</h2></div>
<p>The use of profiling techniques represents threats to the <a href="Privacy" title="Privacy">privacy</a> of the individual and the protection of <a href="Human_rights" title="Human rights">fundamental freedoms</a>. Indeed, criminal data, i.e., data which are collected and processed for suppressing criminal offences, often consists of personal data. One of the issues is the re-use of personal data collected within one criminal investigation for a purpose other than the one for which it was collected. An example from the book, “The Psychology and Sociology of Wrongful Convictions: Forensic Science Reform,” there was a profiling error, in which this woman was raped and slaughtered by a serial killer. The suspect was named the Boston Strangler and investigators worked hard in trying to gather a profile for this criminal. Experts eventually came up with the Boston Strangler being two people and that both men lived alone, most likely schoolteachers, and one of them was homosexual. The criminal finally confessed to the crime and his DNA matched up with the scene, but his profile didn’t fit the crime. The profile the experts came up with didn’t match any characteristics of the killer (pp.6). Creating profiles just creates tunnel vision because investigators will be focusing on finding a specific individual that the profile fits, when in reality, the profiling system is insanely flawed and is considered useless to the investigators.
</p><p>Several methods-including technical, legal, and behavioral available to address some of the issues associated with forensic profiling. For instance, in Europe the <a href="European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> provides a number of instruments for the Protection of Individuals concerning Automatic Processing of Personal Data.
</p>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div>
<ul><li><a href="Forensic_identification" title="Forensic identification">Forensic identification</a></li>
<li><a href="Profiling_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Profiling (disambiguation)">Profiling (disambiguation)</a></li>
<li><a href="Use_of_social_network_websites_in_investigations" title="Use of social network websites in investigations">Use of social network websites in investigations</a></li></ul>
<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>
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</style><cite id="CITEREFGeradtsSommer2006" class="citation cs2">Geradts, Zeno; Sommer, Peter (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fidis.net/fileadmin/fidis/deliverables/fidis-wp6-del6.1.forensic_implications_of_identity_management_systems.pdf">"D6.1: Forensic Implications of Identity Management Systems"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>FIDIS Deliverables</i>, <b>6</b> (1)</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFGeradtsSommer2008" class="citation cs2">Geradts, Zeno; Sommer, Peter (2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fidis.net/fileadmin/fidis/deliverables/fidis-wp6-del6.7c.Forensic_Profiling.pdf">"D6.7c: Forensic Profiling"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>FIDIS Deliverables</i>, <b>6</b> (7c)</cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFPopescuFarid2005" class="citation cs2">Popescu, A.C.; Farid, H. (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110606073405/http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/farid/publications/sp05a.html">"Exposing digital forgeries in color filter array interpolated images"</a>, <i>IEEE Transactions on Signal Processing</i>, <b>167</b> (53): <span class="nowrap">3948–</span>3959, <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005ITSP...53.3948P">2005ITSP...53.3948P</a>, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FTSP.2005.855406">10.1109/TSP.2005.855406</a>, <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:14552234">14552234</a>, archived from <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.dartmouth.edu/farid/publications/sp05a.html">the original</a></span> on 2011-06-06<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2009-03-09</span></span></cite></li>
<li><cite id="CITEREFTerrettaz-ZuffereyRatleRibauxEsseiva2007" class="citation cs2">Terrettaz-Zufferey, A.-L.; Ratle, F.; Ribaux, O.; Esseiva, P.; Khanevski, M. (2007), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://osiris.sunderland.ac.uk/~cs0her/CIS302%20Lectures/content/PBL1/ribaux2007heroin.pdf">"Pattern Detection in Forensic Case Data Using Graph-Theory: Application to Heroin Cutting Agents"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>Forensic Science International</i>, <b>167</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">242–</span>246, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.forsciint.2006.06.059">10.1016/j.forsciint.2006.06.059</a>, <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16884878">16884878</a></cite></li></ul>
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<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171005202225/https://forensiccontrol.com/resources/beginners-guide-computer-forensics/">"An introduction to Computer Forensics by Forensic Control"</a>. <i>Forensic Control</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://forensiccontrol.com/resources/beginners-guide-computer-forensics/">the original</a> on 2017-10-05<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-10-05</span></span>.</cite></span>
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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><i>www.apa.org</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug04/criminal">https://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug04/criminal</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-02-26</span></span>.</cite> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{cite web}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment">Missing or empty <code class="cs1-code">|title=</code> (help)</span></span>
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